Risks allow a probability calculation; uncertainties do not. The incalculability of uncertainties may depend on many different factors. It may be that one does not have all the relevant information and that by collecting more information one may eventually deduce the distribution of the relevant events. However, this chapter’s claim is stronger than that: it claims that uncertain events are such that no increase of available information will allow their treatment as risks. The uncertainty of uncertain events is structural and (...) does not depend on a lack of information. We shall distinguish uncertainty arising from incomplete knowledge from uncertainty inherent in the system. The former is a kind of risk, the latter is uncertainty proper. Risk and uncertainty pertain to two different classes of events and there is no crossable boundary between them.The vast majority of future events are uncertain in the sense specified. Put otherwise, only a tiny minority of future events are amenable to probability assessments.The difference between risks and uncertainties shows that the expression “risk management” is far from adequate, since it explicitly refers only to risks and sidelines uncertainties. On the other hand, both risks and uncertainties should be addressed. By adding a reference to anticipation, the expression “anticipatory risk management” suggests a perhaps less inadequate coverage of the field. (shrink)

Name der Zeitschrift: Paragrana Jahrgang: 23 Heft: 2 Seiten: 216-228.

By applying a bribery model, this paper will deal with those constellations of conditions and activities by actors that are capable of explaining corrupt behavior in economic and sociological theory. Some of these explanations reveal the properties of ‘social mechanisms’ in the sense of analytical sociology (AS). Both disciplines suggest and test the mechanisms of corruption. By taking into consideration the link between monitoring and the frequency of corruption, for example, this paper shows that the proposed way of explaining corrupt (...) behavior using AS offers the opportunity to test counteracting mechanisms. A monitoring mechanism which refers to deterrence may lead to less corruption but may also strengthen an already existing bond of trust between corruption partners. Thus, the trust mechanism may counteract the impact of deterrence and pave the way for new corrupt activities. (shrink)

A crise da representação política e as atuais ameaças às democracias liberais consistem em temas de grande reflexão e debate na filosofia política contemporânea, o que explica, em parte o renovado interesse pelo conceito de representação política. O presente artigo defende que a compreensão das ideologias políticas, a partir da abordagem morfológica de Michael Freeden, possibilita novas formas de pensar sobre a representação e sua relação com a democracia. Ao atribuírem significados determinados e estáveis a conceitos políticos essencialmente contestados, as (...) ideologias disputam o controle da linguagem política, desempenhando também uma função integrativa, ao vincular simbolicamente o indivíduo à sociedade a qual pertence, permitindo, assim, o compartilhamento de conteúdos da consciência individual. A partir da obra de Nadia Urbinati, defende-se a centralidade da recuperação da dimensão ideológica da política para uma noção de representação efetivamente democrática, o que passa pela compreensão do papel deliberativo das ideologias e o caráter híbrido destes sistemas de pensamento, que agregam elementos racionais e não-racionais. (shrink)

Despite widespread and worldwide efforts to eradicate vector-borne diseases such as malaria, these diseases continue to have an enormous negative impact on public health. For this reason, scientists are working on novel control strategies, such as gene drive technologies (GDTs). As GDT research advances, researchers are contemplating the potential next step of conducting field trials. An important point of discussion regarding these field trials relates to who should be informed, consulted, and involved in decision-making about their design and launch. It (...) is generally argued that community members have a particularly strong claim to be engaged, and yet, disagreement and lack of clarity exist about how this “community” should be defined and delineated. In this paper, we shed light on this “boundary problem”: the problem of determining how boundaries of inclusion and exclusion in (GDT) community engagement should be drawn. As our analysis demonstrates, the process of defining and delineating a community is itself normative. First, we explicate why it is important to define and delineate the community. Second, we demonstrate that different definitions of community are used and intermingled in the debate on GDTs, and argue in favor of distinguishing geographical, affected, cultural, and political communities. Finally, we propose initial guidance for deciding who should (not) be engaged in decision-making about GDT field trials, by arguing that the definition and delineation of the community should depend on the rationale for engagement and that the characteristics of the community itself can guide the effective design of community engagement strategies. (shrink)

Gene drive technologies (GDTs) have been proposed as a potential new way to alleviate the burden of malaria, yet have also raised ethical questions. A central ethical question regarding GDTs relates to whether it is morally permissible to intentionally modify or eradicate mosquitoes in this way and how the inherent worth of humans and non-human organisms should be factored into determining this. Existing analyses of this matter have thus far generally relied on anthropocentric and zoocentric perspectives and rejected an individualist (...) biocentric outlook in which all living organisms are taken to matter morally for their own sake. In this paper, we reconsider the implications of taking a biocentric approach and highlight nuances that may not be evident at first glance. First, we shortly discuss biocentric perspectives in general, and then outline Paul Taylor’s biocentric theory of respect for nature. Second, we explore how conflicting claims towards different organisms should be prioritised from this perspective and subsequently apply this to the context of malaria control using GDTs. Our ethical analysis shows that this context invokes the principle of self-defence, which could override the pro tanto concerns that a biocentrist would have against modifying malaria mosquitoes in this way if certain conditions are met. At the same time, the case study of GDTs underlines the relevance of previously posed questions and criticism regarding the internal consistency of Taylor’s egalitarian biocentrism. (shrink)

BackgroundGene drive technologies (GDTs) promote the rapid spread of a particular genetic element within a population of non-human organisms. Potential applications of GDTs include the control of insect vectors, invasive species and agricultural pests. Whether, and if so, under what conditions, GDTs should be deployed is hotly debated. Although broad stances in this debate have been described, the convictions that inform the moral views of the experts shaping these technologies and related policies have not been examined in depth in the (...) academic literature.MethodsIn this qualitative study, we interviewed GDT experts (n = 33) from different disciplines to identify and better understand their moral views regarding these technologies. The pseudonymized transcripts were analyzed thematically.ResultsThe respondents’ moral views were principally influenced by their attitudes towards (1) the uncertainty related to GDTs; (2) the alternatives to which they should be compared; and (3) the role humans should have in nature. Respondents agreed there is epistemic uncertainty related to GDTs, identified similar knowledge gaps, and stressed the importance of realistic expectations in discussions on GDTs. They disagreed about whether uncertainty provides a rationale to refrain from field trials (‘risks of intervention’ stance) or to proceed with phased testing to obtain more knowledge given the harms of the status quo (‘risks of non-intervention’ stance). With regards to alternatives to tackle vector-borne diseases, invasive species and agricultural pests, respondents disagreed about which alternatives should be considered (un)feasible and (in)sufficiently explored: conventional strategies (‘downstream solutions’ stance) or systematic changes to health care, political and agricultural systems (‘upstream solutions’ stance). Finally, respondents held different views on nature and whether the use of GDTs is compatible with humans’ role in nature (‘interference’ stance) or not (‘non-interference stance’).ConclusionsThis interview study helps to disentangle the debate on GDTs by providing a better understanding of the moral views of GDT experts. The obtained insights provide valuable stepping-stones for a constructive debate about underlying value conflicts and call attention to topics that deserve further (normative) reflection. Further evaluation of these issues can facilitate the debate on and responsible development of GDTs. (shrink)

### ­ In Who shall go first? A multicriteria approach to patient selection for first clinical trials of cardiac xenotransplantation, Kögel et al recommend the inclusion of patients who (1) have a (high) medical need for an allograft, (2) have the capacity to benefit from a xenograft, (3) have a ‘real’ choice between enrolment in a first-in-human clinical trial and an alternative life-sustaining treatment option and (4) have no clear record of previous non-compliance.1 As the authors discuss, patient selection must (...) promote the goal of gaining reliable and valid knowledge about the risks and benefits of cardiac xenotransplantation. While the four criteria outlined above certainly promote this goal, we argue it is crucial to add a fifth criterion emphasising the need to include diverse populations, particularly regarding sex, age, ethnicity and socioeconomic background.i In this commentary, we present two arguments for our claim and discuss the impact of neglecting diversity from the first trials on. ### The scientific rationale for including diverse populations First, including diverse populations in the first clinical trials of cardiac xenotransplantation enhances the scientific value of the data by assessing safety and efficacy among various populations. Treatment response can differ among patient (sub)groups as a result of genetic, physiological and socioeconomic factors.2 By including diverse populations from the first trials on, researchers can identify these …. (shrink)

The Dutch law states that a physician may perform euthanasia according to a written advance euthanasia directive when a patient is incompetent as long as all legal criteria of due care are met. This may also hold for patients with advanced dementia. We investigated the differing opinions of physicians and members of the general public on the acceptability of euthanasia in patients with advanced dementia.

Regenerative Medicine promises to develop treatments to regrow healthy tissues and cure the physical body. One of the emerging developments within this field is regenerative implants, such as jawbone or heart valve implants, that can be broken down by the body and are gradually replaced with living tissue. Yet challenges for embodiment are to be expected, given that the implants are designed to integrate deeply into the tissue of the living body, so that implant and body become one. In this (...) paper, we explore how regenerative implants may affect the embodied experience of implant recipients. To this end, we take a phenomenological approach. First, we explore what insights the existing phenomenological and empirical literature on embodiment offers regarding the experience of illness and of living with regular (non-regenerative) implants and organ transplants. Second, we apply these insights to better understand how future implant recipients might experience living with regenerative implants. Third, we conclude that concepts and considerations from the existing phenomenological literature do not sufficiently address what it might be like to live with an implantable technology that, over time, becomes one with the living body. We argue that the interwovenness and intimate relationship of people living with regenerative implants should be understood in terms of ‘entanglement’. Entanglement allows us to explore the complexities of human-technology relations, acknowledging the inseparability of humans and implantable technologies. Our theoretical foundations regarding the role of embodiment may be tested empirically once more people will be living with regenerative implants. (shrink)

RESUMO Este artigo aborda o gênero romance histórico e suas particularidades a partir dos estudos de Bakhtin. O trajeto se faz em torno do conceito de cronotopo, figurando a indissociabilidade de tempo e espaço. A materialidade de análise é a obra Verde vale, de 1979, da catarinense Urda Alice Klueger. A análise realizada destaca o cronotopo da transmigração como figura que alicerça a narrativa histórica; ele se desdobra em dois temas subordinados: o cronotopo da soleira e o da terra, simbolizando (...) os movimentos observados na construção narrativa do romance. Vinculado a essas representações cronotópicas, o tema da terra, que implica enraizamento e remete também a origem, permite a ampliação da análise aproximando os fenômenos de toponímia e antroponímia, trabalhados como eventos de memória e identidade. ABSTRACT This article, based on Bakhtin’s studies, focuses on the historical novel genre and its particularities. The route is based on the concept of chronotope, representing the inseparability of time and space. The materiality of analysis is the novel Verde Vale, by Urda Alice Klueger. The analysis carried out highlights the chronotope of transmigration as a figure that underlies the historical narrative; it unfolds into two subordinate themes: the threshold and soil chronotopes, symbolizing the movements observed in the narrative construction of the novel. Linked to these chronotopic representations, the theme of the soil, which implies rooting and also refers to the origin, allows the expansion of the analysis bringing the phenomena of toponymy and anthroponymy closer together, worked as memory and identity events. (shrink)

Liao and Carbonell discuss the role of (supposed) racial differences and racism in two medical devices: pulse oximeters and spirometers. They show that what might seem like cases of mere bias, are...

The aim of this work is to analyse the influence of sociocultural factors on corruption levels. Taking as starting point Husted (J Int Bus Studies 30:339–359, 1999) and Graeff (In: Lambsdorff J, Taube M, Schramm M (eds) The new institutional economics of corruption. Routledge, London, 2005) proposals, we consider both the interrelation between cultural dimensions and the diverse expressions of social capital with corruption. According to our results, the universalistic trust (linking and bridging social capital) constitutes a positive social (...) capital that is negatively linked to corruption. In contrast, the particularistic levels of trust (bonding) can constitute a negative social capital directly related to corruption levels. Furthermore, cultures which are favourable to the legitimation of dependency relations and the formation of closed particularistic groups (power-distance and community factors) create a breeding ground for the development of these amoral rent-seeking structures. (shrink)